Abstract

Early sports specialisation among youth athletes has become increasingly common. While the deliberate practice framework supports the early specialisation approach, there is some debate as to whether elite performance requires such intense training and the exclusion of other sports activities during early childhood. Conflicting research results and the lack of effective science communication have caused confusion among parents. “Which pathway is better to take, the early or late specialisation route?” This article investigates the debate surrounding early versus late specialisation pathways in youth sports. Various studies and experts’ consensuses have concluded that early specialisation is not a prerequisite for future elite performance. On the contrary, early sports specialisation is associated with increased risks of overuse injury, burnout, and sports dropout. Experts recommend that parents engage young children in multiple sports activities (early sampling) and delay single-sport specialisation until late adolescence. Additionally, studies on elite football players suggest an alternative model beyond early versus late specialisation with the early engagement hypothesis. However, future research is still needed to test the early engagement model across various sports and cultural contexts.

Keywords: deliberate practice; early engagement; early sampling; early specialisation; elite performance; late specialisation; youth sports.

Introduction

Many popular biographies of elite athletes perpetuate the narrative that eminent athletes started practising a particular sport at a young age. We heard stories of Tiger Woods who started practising golf at the tender age of two, Max Verstappen who started go-karting at four, and the Williams sisters whose tennis coach father started to train them before they turned five. The highly competitive nature of elite sports may fuel parents’ intuition to send their children to organised and specialised sports training at an early age. This practice amongst parents was confirmed by several studies which revealed an increasing prevalence of early specialisation over the last decade: almost 80% of high-school athletic directors in the US study reported the trend; current US high-school athletes specialised on average two years earlier than professional athletes; and the growing number of young athletes in the Olympic (Buckley et al., 2017; Jayanthi et al., 2013; Kliethermes et al., 2020; Myer et al., 2015).

Nevertheless, we have also heard stories about other successful athletes who played multiple sports during childhood and started to specialise later in adolescence. For example, Zlatan Ibrahimovic practised taekwondo in his youth, Roger Federer played cricket among several other sports, and Hakeem Olajuwon played football before he picked up basketball when he was 15. In the media, there has been news about injuries, burnout, and even complete dropout from sports among youth athletes, casting more doubts on the practice of early specialisation. Thus, many parents are also wondering if sending their children to specialise early in sports is the right decision. This article investigates the debate surrounding early specialisation in sports in the current expertise literature. For parents who want to develop their children’s talent in sports, based on the latest scientific evidence, which road is better to take, the early specialisation or the late specialisation route?

What Do We Mean by Early Specialisation?

The definition of early specialisation is not always consistent across various sport-expertise studies. Many researchers agree that the academic community needs a consensus in defining early specialisation (DiSanti & Erickson, 2019; Jayanthi et al., 2013; Kliethermes et al., 2020; Mosher et al., 2021). As a point of reference for this article, we use the framework by Baker et al. (2009) in which four parameters identify early specialisation: early starting age in a sport before puberty; early involvement in one sport (as opposed to sampling over several sports); early involvement in deliberate practice (focused and high-intensity training); and early participation in sports competition.

Another helpful framework is the developmental model of sport participation (DSMP) elucidated by Côté (1999). The DSMP mainly contrasts the early sampling approach versus the early specialisation approach. The DSMP identifies three phases of youth sports participation from early childhood to late adolescence (age 6-18): the sampling years (6-13), the specialising years (13-15), and the investment years (15 and over). The concepts of deliberate play and deliberate practice mark the transition between the three phases. Initially, in the sampling years, there is a high frequency of deliberate play and a low frequency of deliberate practice. The proportion of deliberate practice significantly increases as one progresses toward the specialising and investment years. Therefore, based on Côté’s (1999) categorisation, early specialisation refers to a child who enters the specialising phase in early adolescence before 13 years old. The cut-off age may be somewhat arbitrary, yet other researchers have also suggested that the average age of sports specialisation for elite athletes is about 14 years (Mosher et al., 2021).

Deliberate Practice: The Main Argument for Early Specialisation

Based on decades of research, Ericsson et al. (1993) strongly proposed that deliberate practice was sufficient for developing expertise in any domain. Deliberate practice is the kind of effortful practice with structured programmes and feedback loops that may not be inherently enjoyable. The study documented that more accomplished expert musicians spent at least 10,000 hours of deliberate practice while the less accomplished ones had less than 7000 hours. The evidence was observed across several domains: music, chess, dance, and sports. Thus, the 10-year rule became the heralded key in the deliberate practice approach of expertise. 

Furthermore, Ericsson et al. (1993) argued that the accumulation of deliberate practice time must coincide with crucial milestones in one’s physical and cognitive development to achieve superior performance. In their study of expert musicians, many started musical training at about five years of age. They also found a similar pattern in the sports domain. The best individuals started training at an earlier age and maintained a higher level of daily practice. Diary records of young national-level gymnasts, swimmers, and ice-skaters (age 15-16) showed that these athletes practised 2-3 hours a day, amounting to around 16 hours of practice per week. Novices who began training late and wanted to catch up had to dramatically boost their deliberate practice, risking overuse injury and exhaustion, eventually causing them to terminate their engagement with the sport. It would be nearly impossible for a late starter to compete with the early advantage of those who began at a young age and maintained the deliberate practice over time. Therefore, Ericsson et al. suggested that early specialisation was crucial for achieving exceptional performance in one’s domain of expertise. Individuals who start early and practice diligently will outperform those who practice equally hard but start later in life.

More recent empirical evidence supporting the early specialisation pathway was found in elite gymnasts. Law et al. (2007) observed that between the ages of 6-12, Olympic gymnasts participated in fewer than two other sports, while lower-skilled international gymnasts participated in three other sports. Due to early specialisation, by age 16, Olympic gymnasts had accumulated almost three times more deliberate practice than international gymnasts. The study indicated that for a sport that requires expertise before puberty, such as gymnastics, early specialisation was necessary for elite performance.

Negative Consequences of Early Specialisation

Researchers argue that deliberate practice largely downplays the affective and social aspects of learning (Baker et al., 2009; Côté et al., 2009). Concerns are primarily addressed toward the negative developmental consequences of early intensive training. Moreover, the physical and physiological consequences of early intensive training have also been widely reported (Baker, 2003; Baker et al., 2009).

Physical Consequences and Risk of Injuries

A limited range of skills trained during early sport specialisation may negatively interfere with a child’s overall motor skill development (Baker, 2003). The lack of movement diversity and repetitive use of the same body segments may hinder the effective development of neuromuscular skills essential for agility and injury prevention (Myer et al., 2015). Furthermore, overuse injuries from excessive training during crucial periods of development can have severe costs (Baker, 2003; Baker et al., 2009). For example, knee problem is often seen in youth athletes. Due to the growth spurt period of adolescence, the leg areas experience rapid bone growth. However, muscles and tendons have not grown at the same rate as the bones; thus, causing tightness and inflexibility around the knee joint. Intense training makes the knee area more susceptible to stress and injury (Baker et al., 2009).

In a study on sports specialisation among young athletes, Jayanthi et al. (2013) reported a linear relationship between exposure and risk of injury, with a significantly elevated risk for training volume over 16 hours per week. The study also reported that young players who specialised only in tennis reported 1.5 times more injuries than average. Youth baseball pitchers who pitched more than 100 innings per year had 3.5 times more risk of injury, and those who pitched more than 8 months per year had a significantly increased risk of shoulder surgery. Also, peripubertal gymnasts were at higher risk of injury during periods of a growth spurt, with higher fracture risk during peak height velocity (Jayanthi et al., 2013). Myer et al. (2015) made a bold claim that sport-specialised training was an independent risk factor for injury in young athletes. Highly specialised young athletes had a 2.25 times greater risk of serious overuse injuries than unspecialised ones, even when considering weekly training volume and age (Myer et al., 2015).

DiFiori et al. (2014) estimated that overuse injuries varied between sports, ranging from 37% in skiing and handball to 68% in running. However, overuse injuries are underestimated in epidemiology studies because an injury is defined as requiring time away from participation (DiFiori et al., 2014). In the long run, these physical effects of early specialisation may limit one’s physical activities, involvement in sports, and overall long-term health (Baker, 2003; Baker et al., 2009).

Psychosocial Consequences

Researchers have contended that early specialisation in sports can stifle youths’ psychological and sociological development (Baker, 2003; Baker et al., 2009; Myer et al., 2015). Baker et al. (2009) cited studies that showed athletes with early-age participation in intensive training and competition showed less altruistic behaviour, excessive rivalry, and more significant antisocial tendencies than other athletes. Many studies on early specialisation have also reported social isolation issues associated with a reduced sense of control in personal decision-making, lack of free time, missed social opportunities and sacrificed lifestyle in young athletes (Baker et al., 2009).

A general concern about early specialisation is the decreased sport enjoyment in young people (Baker et al., 2009; Myer et al., 2015). Nevertheless, the deliberate practice approach explicitly states that it is not inherently enjoyable (Ericsson et al., 1993). Research has indicated that adolescents need to enjoy activities in their domain since intrinsic motivation is key to maintaining sustainable participation and achievement goal (Myer et al., 2015). Unfortunately, this is not often the case with early specialisation in youth sports. Many studies have argued that early involvement in intensive training without adequate recovery time may lead to staleness, burnout, and even complete dropout from sports (Baker et al., 2009; Côté et al., 2007; Myer et al., 2015).

Investigations on youths who discontinue participation in a particular sport consistently show that lack of enjoyment is the predominant reason for attrition (Baker, 2003). In addition, many studies have observed an association between early sport specialisation and dropout in youth sports (Baker et al., 2009). For example, a study on young hockey players showed that dropout players started training at an earlier age than players who stayed (Wall & Cote, as cited in Baker et al., 2009). Likewise, a Canadian study of elite young swimmers indicated that initial specialisation, training camp participation, and peak performance all occurred earlier in dropout swimmers (Fraser-Thomas et al., as cited in Baker et al., 2009). Similarly, a Russian study showed that national team swimmers who specialised earlier did not participate in the national team as long and retired younger than those who specialised later (Barynina & Vaitsekhovskii, as cited in Baker et al., 2009).

Interestingly, studies have shown that the populations of junior and senior elite athletes do not necessarily intersect. Most junior elite athletes did not turn out to be senior elite athletes; likewise, most senior elite athletes did not achieve equivalent success at previous junior competitions (Barth et al., 2022; Güllich et al., 2021). Elite performance at the junior level is associated with an early start in the primary sport, intensive deliberate practice, rapid initial progress, and little engagement in other sports. Elite performance at the senior level is associated with adolescent multiple sports engagement, relatively late specialisation in primary sports, and gradual initial progress (Barth et al., 2022; Güllich et al., 2021).

Eating Disorder: A Point of Concern

Studies reported that the prevalence of eating disorders in elite athletes is higher than in the general population (Baker et al., 2009). For example, a Norwegian study observed a 13.5% prevalence of subclinical and clinical eating disorders in elite athletes, compared to only 4.6% in the general population (Sundgot-Borgen & Torstveit, 2004). Furthermore, the same Norwegian study reported that the prevalence of eating disorders in elite female aesthetic sport athletes was a jarring 42%, compared to 9% in the female control group. Given that early specialisation is more common in aesthetic sports, young athletes in these sports are even more at risk of eating disorders (Baker et al., 2009). Young athletes in aesthetic sports are often “deselected” from teams if they do not meet a particular ideal body composition; many are becoming more concerned about their body image at an increasingly earlier age (Baker et al., 2009).

Expert Consensuses: What do the Experts Recommend?

International Olympic Committee (IOC) Consensus

In Bergeron et al. (2015) paper, the IOC consensus recognises that children are increasingly specialising in a sport at a younger age, even in sports domains outside of gymnastics, swimming, diving, and figure skating. The trend is primarily a result of increased professionalisation and competitiveness of youth sports. The organisation emphasises the risk of compromised athletic skills development, physical injury, mental health issues, sports dropout, and unrealised potential associated with early specialisation. In essence, the IOC agrees with empirical evidence that early specialisation is not a prerequisite for successful achievement in sports; diversity of activities at an early age is associated with later intense training involvement and future elite performance. Studies suggest youth should avoid early specialisation as multiple sports exposure enhances motor skills development and athletic capacity, reduces injury risk, and facilitates young children to discover the most appropriate sports. Moreover, children who specialised after puberty tend to show more sustainable participation (consistent performance, less injury, and playing longer in the sport) than those who specialised earlier. Therefore, the IOC encourages young children to participate in multiple sports activities (sport sampling with more deliberate play) to develop a wide range of athletic and social skills that will create enjoyment and sustain participation in sports.

Nevertheless, the organisation acknowledges that the concerns regarding specialisation need to be addressed realistically and appropriately. Youth athlete development is complex, idiosyncratic, and dynamic along the changing physical growth, physiological maturation, and psychological development; thus, it must be tailored individually. Early specialisation pathway is not automatically “incorrect” for all individual athletes; it may be acceptable for some youth athletes of appropriate age as long as they are enjoying and benefiting optimally from the experience (Bergeron et al., 2015; DiSanti & Erickson, 2019). Instead of just focusing on age-related prescriptions, athlete development frameworks should holistically consider multi-factors and recognise “best practice” for each developmental phase. A single sport focus needs to include appropriate diversity of athletic exposure, sufficient rest-recovery, and adequate emphasis on other areas of life (family, school, social sphere). A balanced program minimises injury and optimises performance while supporting learning foundational skills and sport-specific techniques (Bergeron et al., 2015).

Medical Associations Recommendations

Strength-of-Recommendation Taxonomy (SORT) is often used to label key recommendations in clinical review articles (Ebell et al., 2004). Labels range from the strongest recommendation A (consistent patient-oriented evidence) to the least strength of level C (for consensus, expert opinion, and disease-oriented evidence). Medical associations in the USA have published systematic reviews and meta-analyses on early specialisation in youth sports and provided recommendations with B and C levels of SORT. Examples of the institutions include the American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine (LaPrade et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015), the American Academy of Pediatrics (Bell et al., 2018), the American Medical Society for Sports Medicine (DiFiori et al., 2014; Kliethermes et al., 2020), and The University of Kansas Medical Center (Carder et al., 2020).

The medical communities primarily conclude that youth specialisation is not a prerequisite for successful elite performance in most sports, except for early peak performance sports such as gymnastics and figure skating. Evidence shows that elite athletes often specialise between the ages of 14 and 15. The medical associations also recommend that parents encourage youth to participate in a variety of sports during the developmental years (sport sampling) and delay intense single sport specialised training until late adolescence (Bell et al., 2018; Carder et al., 2020; DiFiori et al., 2014; Kliethermes et al., 2020; LaPrade et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015). Furthermore, to minimise the risk of injury, the recommended weekly volume of training is no greater than the athlete’s age or a maximum of 16 hours per week of organised sports (LaPrade et al., 2016; Myer et al., 2015).

Moving Beyond the Dichotomy: Early Engagement Hypothesis

Early specialisation and late specialisation/early diversification have been contrasted as opposing approaches. However, Ford et al. (2009) argued with their empirical study of British current-elite and ex-elite football players that the data did not support the dichotomy. They proposed an alternative pathway to youth sport talent development with their “early engagement hypothesis.” The hypothesis resonates with the contemporary criticism of the simplistic binary division of pathways in youth sports (Baker et al., 2021). Early engagement is associated with a high level of play and practice in the primary domain, with minimal diversity in other sports. Early engagement is different from early specialisation for the emphasis on balancing domain-specific deliberate practice with domain-specific deliberate play. One example of an early engagement approach is demonstrated by the Ajax Amsterdam football academy, which adopted the ASM (Athletic Skills Model). The model engages young children in football deliberate play early and also involves children in multiple other sports, but tailors the activities deemed optimal for the development of future elite football players. The activities included in the programme are track and field, gymnastics (e.g. soccer-aerobics), play and sports (e.g. frisbee), and judo (Wormhoudt et al., 2017). However, more research in various sports domains and cultural contexts is needed to explain the early engagement model better.

Conclusion

Various studies have shown that in most sports, there is no evidence that young children will benefit from early sport specialisation (except for several sports with early-age peak performance, such as gymnastics, figure skating and diving). Young children are at risk of overuse injury and burnout from early intensive training. Expert consensuses from the IOC and various medical associations advise parents to engage young children in multisport activities. Early sampling will not hinder long-term competitive athletic success as early specialisation is not a prerequisite for elite performance. Moreover, research in youth football proposed the early engagement hypothesis as an alternative beyond the early versus late specialisation debate. However, future studies are still needed to test the early engagement model in different domains.

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